Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent. It has no permanent human population, and its ecosystems are simple and environmentally sensitive: food chains are short and depend heavily on krill, which are eaten by fish, penguins, seals and whales. Plants (mosses, lichens and two flowering plants) grow very slowly, so damage takes a long time to recover.Threats:• climate change: warming and loss of sea ice reduce the algae under the ice that krill feed on
• overfishing of krill and fish such as the Patagonian toothfish, and historically whaling and sealing
• tourism: trampling, disturbance of breeding colonies and pollution
• introduction of non-native species on boots, clothing and equipment
• pollution from research stations and ships.Management:• The Antarctic Treaty (signed 1959) reserves the continent for peaceful purposes and scientific research.
• The Madrid Protocol (Protocol on Environmental Protection, 1991) bans mining and requires environmental impact assessments for all activities and waste to be removed from the continent.
• The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) sets catch limits for krill and fish, taking into account the needs of predators.
• Tour operators follow guidelines: only about 100 visitors may be ashore at one site at a time, people must keep a distance from wildlife, and boots and clothing are cleaned to prevent introducing species.Much of Antarctica is therefore managed by preservation rather than conservation, with human activity kept to a minimum.
• overfishing of krill and fish such as the Patagonian toothfish, and historically whaling and sealing
• tourism: trampling, disturbance of breeding colonies and pollution
• introduction of non-native species on boots, clothing and equipment
• pollution from research stations and ships.Management:• The Antarctic Treaty (signed 1959) reserves the continent for peaceful purposes and scientific research.
• The Madrid Protocol (Protocol on Environmental Protection, 1991) bans mining and requires environmental impact assessments for all activities and waste to be removed from the continent.
• The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) sets catch limits for krill and fish, taking into account the needs of predators.
• Tour operators follow guidelines: only about 100 visitors may be ashore at one site at a time, people must keep a distance from wildlife, and boots and clothing are cleaned to prevent introducing species.Much of Antarctica is therefore managed by preservation rather than conservation, with human activity kept to a minimum.